Most of us are using OpenAI's Ada 002 for text embeddings. The reason for that is OpenAl built a good embedding model that was easy to use long before anyone else. However, this was a long time ago. One look at the MTEB leaderboards tells us that Ada is far from the best option for embedding text.

So, what is the best embedding model? It depends on your data, whether you need to optimize for accuracy or latency, and more — as we'll see in this article.

You may also be asking what exactly is an embedding model? If you're here, you're likely aware that it is a key component in Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG).

An embedding model identifies relevant information when given a user's query. These models can do this by looking at the "human meaning" behind a query and matching that to the "meaning" of a broader set of documents, webpages, videos, or other sources of information.

Nowadays, many propriety embedding models far outperform Ada, and there are even tiny open-source models with comparable performance, such as E5.

In this article, we will explore two models - the open-source E5 and Cohere's embed v3 models - and see how they compare to the incumbent Ada 002.

MTEB Leaderboards

The most popular place for finding the latest performance benchmarks for text embedding models is the MTEB leaderboards hosted by Hugging Face. MTEB is a great place to start but does require some caution and skepticism - the results are self-reported, and unfortunately, many results prove inaccurate when attempting to use the models on real-world data.

Many of these models (typically the open-source ones) seem to have been fine-tuned on the MTEB benchmarks, producing inflated performance numbers. Nonetheless, the reported performance of some open-source models — such as E5 — is accurate.

There are many fields in MTEB that we can mostly ignore. The fields that matter most for those of us using these models in the real world are:

• Score: the score we should focus on is "average" and "retrieval average". Both are highly correlated, so focusing on either works.
• Sequence length tells us how many tokens a model can consume and compress into a single embedding. Generally speaking, we wouldn't recommend stuffing more than a paragraph of heft into a single embedding - so models supporting up to 512 tokens are usually more than enough.
• Model size: the size of a model indicates how easy it will be to run. All models near the top of MTEB are reasonably sized. One of the largest is instructor-xl (requiring 4.96GB of memory), which we can easily run on consumer hardware.

Focusing on these columns gives us all the information we need to choose models that will likely fit our needs. With this in mind, we choose three models to feature in this article — two proprietary models, Ada 002 and embed-english-v3.0 — and one tiny but performant open-source model; e5-base-v2.

Downloading Test Data

To perform our comparison, we need a dataset. We will use the prechunked AI ArXiv dataset from HuggingFace datasets.

!pip install -qU datasets==2.14.6

from datasets import load_dataset

data = load_dataset(
    "jamescalam/ai-arxiv-chunked",
    split= "train"
)

This dataset gives us ~42K text chunks to embed, each roughly a paragraph or two.

Prerequisites

The prerequisites for each model varies slightly. OpenAI and Cohere store the two propriety models behind APIs, so their client libraries are very lightweight, and all we need is to install those and grab their respective API keys.

!pip install -qU \
    cohere==4.34 \
    openai==1.2.2

import os
import cohere
import openai

# initialize cohere
os.environ["COHERE_API_KEY"] = "your cohere api key"
co = cohere.Client()

# openai doesn't need to be initialized, but need to set api key
os.environ["OPENAI_API_KEY"] = "your openai api key"

E5 is a local model, and we need a little more code and installs to run it — including fairly heavy libraries like PyTorch. The model is comparatively lightweight, so we don't need heavy GPU instances or a ton of run memory. However ideally, we do want at least a GPU to run it on for faster performance, but this isn't a strict requirement, and we can manage with CPU only.

!pip install -qU \
    torch==2.1.2 \
    transformers==4.25.0

import torch
from transformers import AutoModel, AutoTokenizer

# use GPU if available, on mac can use MPS
device = "cuda" if torch.cuda.is_available() else "cpu"

model_id = "intfloat/e5-base-v2"

# initialize tokenizer and model
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_id)
model = AutoModel.from_pretrained(model_id).to(device)
model.eval()

Creating Embeddings

To create our embeddings, we will create an embed function for each model. We'll pass a list of strings into these embed functions and expect to return a list of vector embeddings.

API Embeddings

Naturally, the code for our proprietary embedding models is more straightforward, so let's cover those two first:

# cohere embedding function
def embed(docs: list[str]) -> list[list[float]]:
    doc_embeds = co.embed(
        docs,
        input_type="search_document",
        model="embed-english-v3.0"
    )
    return doc_embeds.embeddings

# openai embedding function
def embed(docs: list[str]) -> list[list[float]]:
    res = openai.embeddings.create(
        input=docs,
        model="text-embedding-ada-002"
    )
    doc_embeds = [r.embedding for r in res.data]
    return doc_embeds

With Cohere and OpenAI, we're making a simple API call. There's little to note here other than the input_type parameter for the Cohere API. The input_type defines whether the current inputs are document vectors or query vectors. We define this to support improved performance for asymmetric semantic search — where we are querying with a smaller chunk of text (i.e., a search query) and attempting to retrieve larger chunks (i.e., a couple of sentences or paragraphs).

Local Embeddings

E5 works similarly to the Cohere embedding model with support for asymmetric search. However, the implementation is slightly different. Rather than specifying whether an input is a query or document via a parameter, we prefix that information to the input text. For query, we prefix "query:" , and for documents, we prefix "passage:" (another name for documents).

def embed(docs: list[str]) -> list[list[float]]:
    docs = [f"passage: {d}" for d in docs]
    # tokenize
    tokens = tokenizer(
        docs, padding=True, max_length=512, truncation=True, return_tensors="pt"
    ).to(device)
    with torch.no_grad():
        # process with model for token-level embeddings
        out = model(**tokens)
        # mask padding tokens
        last_hidden = out.last_hidden_state.masked_fill(
            ~tokens["attention_mask"][..., None].bool(), 0.0
        )
        # create mean pooled embeddings
        doc_embeds = last_hidden.sum(dim=1) / \
            tokens["attention_mask"].sum(dim=1)[..., None]
    return doc_embeds.cpu().numpy()

After specifying that these chunks are documents, we tokenize them to give us the tokens parameter. Every transformer-based model requires a tokenization step. Tokenization is where we translate human-readable plain text into transformer-readable inputs, which is simply a list of integers like [0, 531, 81, 944, ...], where each integer represents a word or sub-word.

Once we have our tokens we feed them into our model with model(**tokens). From this, we get our output logits (i.e., predictions) in the out parameter.

Some of our input tokens are padding tokens. These are used as placeholders to align the dimensions of the arrays/tensors that we feed through each model layer. By default, we ignore the output logits produced by these tokens, but in some cases (e.g., with embedding models), we must calculate an average value across all output logits. If we were to consider the output logits produced by the padding tokens in this calculation, we would degrade embedding quality.

To avoid degradation of embedding quality, we must mask (i.e., hide by setting to None) the output logits produced by padding tokens. That is what the out.last_hidden_state.masked_fill line is doing.

Finally, we're ready to calculate our single vector embedding — which we do so by mean pooling. Mean pooling means taking the average values from all of our output logit vectors to produce a single vector, which we store in the doc_embeds parameter.

From there, we return our doc_embeds after moving it from GPU to CPU (if we used a GPU) with .cpu() and transforming the PyTorch tensor of doc_embeds into a Numpy array with .numpy().

Building a Vector Index

We can create our vector index with the same logic once we have defined our chosen embed function. We define a batch_size and iterate through our dataset to create the embeddings and add them to a local vector index called arr.

from tqdm.auto import tqdm
import numpy as np

chunks = data["chunk"]
batch_size = 256

for i in tqdm(range(0, len(chunks), batch_size)):
    i_end = min(len(chunks), i+batch_size)
    chunk_batch = chunks[i:i_end]
    # embed current batch
    embed_batch = embed(chunk_batch)
    # add to existing np array if exists (otherwise create)
    if i == 0:
        arr = embed_batch.copy()
    else:
        arr = np.concatenate([arr, embed_batch.copy()])

Here, we can measure two metrics — embedding latency and vector dimensionality. Running all of these on Google Colab, we see the time taken to index the entire dataset for each model is:

Ada 002 is the slowest method here. E5 was the fastest, _but_ was run on a V100 GPU instance in Google Colab — the API models don't require us to run our code on GPU instances. Another consideration is storage requirements. Higher dimensional vectors cost more to store, and these costs can build up over time.

Performance

When testing these models, we will see relatively similar results. We're using a messy dataset, which is more challenging _but_ also more realistic.

Q1: Why should I use Llama 2?

Note: we have paraphrased the results below for brevity. See the original notebooks for full results and code [Ada 002, Cohere embed v3, E5 base v2].

For the first set of results, we get slightly better results from Ada. For that first result, Cohere's model returns a result about the original Llama model (rather than Llama 2), and the E5 model returns some strange malformed text. However, all of the models return the same relevant results in positions two and three.

Q2: Can you tell me about red teaming for llama 2?

The red teaming question returned the worst results across all models. Despite information about red teaming Llama 2 existing in the dataset, none of that information was returned. All models did return information about generic red teaming, with Cohere's model returning the most informative results (in the author's opinion). E5 returned what seems to be the poorest result due to the lack of English text — however, it does seem to be related to red teaming, just in the wrong language.

Q3: What is the difference between gpt-4 and llama?

The results when asking for a comparison between GPT-4 and Llama are good from each model. The primary difference is that Ada 002 and E5 both return a plaintext table response — that is harder for us to read, but most LLMs would likely get some good information from that. Cohere returns a set of three valuable text-only responses.

Using what we have learned here, we have a good overview of the different types of embedding models and the qualities we might be most interested in when assessing which of those we should use. Naturally, a big part of that assessment should consist of us focusing on evaluation, which we did a little — qualitatively — here.

New models are being added to the MTEB leaderboards almost daily — many of those showing promising state-of-the-art results. So, there is no shortage of high-quality embedding models we can use in retrieval.