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What is Learnable in Valiant's Theory of the Learnable? Learning Perturbations to Extrapolate Your LLM Byzantine-Robust Distributed Sparse Learning Revisited The Sample Complexity of Multiple Change Point Identification under Bandit Feedback A proximal gradient algorithm for composite log-concave sampling Model-based Bootstrap of Controlled Markov Chains Approximation of Maximally Monotone Operators : A Graph Convergence Perspective Posterior Contraction Rates for Sparse Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks in Anisotropic Besov Spaces MIST: Reliable Streaming Decision Trees for Online Class-Incremental Learning via McDiarmid Bound A Spectral Framework for Closed-Form Relative Density Estimation Fast Rates for Offline Contextual Bandits with Forward-KL Regularization under Single-Policy Concentrability Higher-Order Equilibrium Tracking for EM-Compressible Online Estimation Scaling Limits of Long-Context Transformers A Note on Non-Negative $L_1$-Approximating Polynomials Susceptibilities and Patterning: A Primer on Linear Response in Bayesian Learning Linear Response Estimators for Singular Statistical Models Statistical inference with belief functions: A survey Robust stochastic first order methods in heavy-tailed noise via medoid mini-batch gradient sampling Every Feedforward Neural Network Definable in an o-Minimal Structure Has Finite Sample Complexity Adaptive auditing of AI systems with anytime-valid guarantees Locally Near Optimal Piecewise Linear Regression in High Dimensions via Difference of Max-Affine Functions Risk-Controlled Post-Processing of Decision Policies Covariate Balancing and Riesz Regression Should Be Guided by the Neyman Orthogonal Score in Debiased Machine Learning A Unified Pair-GRPO Family: From Implicit to Explicit Preference Constraints for Stable and General RL Alignment Time-Inhomogeneous Preconditioned Langevin Dynamics A Fine-Grained Understanding of Uniform Convergence for Halfspaces CITE: Anytime-Valid Statistical Inference in LLM Self-Consistency Ratio-based Loss Functions Optimal Confidence Band for Kernel Gradient Flow Estimator A renormalization-group inspired lattice-based framework for piecewise generalized linear models
Random Consolidations and Fragmentations Cycles Lead to B...
Alex Ely Kossovsky · 2015-05-20 · via math.ST updates on arXiv.org

Benford's Law predicts that the first significant digit on the leftmost side of numbers in real-life data is proportioned between all possible 1 to 9 digits approximately as in LOG(1 + 1/digit), so that low digits occur much more frequently than high digits in the first place. For example, digit 1 occurs approximately 30.1% in the first place in random numbers, while digit 9 occurs only approximately 4.6%. In this article it is shown that a process where a large enough set of identical quantities constantly alternates between minuscule random consolidations (summing two randomly chosen values into a singular value) and tiny random fragmentations (division of one randomly chosen value into two new values) converges digit-wise to the Benford proportions after sufficiently many such cycles. The statistical tendency of the system after numerous cycles is to have approximately 2/3 multiplicative expressions which are conducive to Benford behavior as they tend to the Lognormal Distribution, and 1/3 additive expressions which are detrimental to Benford behavior as they tend to the Normal Distribution, hence the process represents in essence a tug of war between addition and multiplication. Since the process encounters the so-called Achilles' heel of the Central Limit Theorem, namely additions of skewed distributions with high order of magnitude, additions are not very effective, and the war is decisively won by multiplication, leading to Benford behavior. Randomness in selecting the particular quantity to be fragmented, as well as randomness in selecting the two particular quantities to be consolidated, is essential for convergence. Not surprisingly then, fragmentation itself could be performed either randomly say via a realization from the continuous Uniform on (0, 1), or deterministically via any fixed split ratio such as say 25% - 75%, and Benford's Law emerges in either case.