We develop a unified spectral framework for finite ultrametric phylogenetic trees, grounding the analysis of phylogenetic structure in operator theory and stochastic dynamics in the finite setting. For a given finite ultrametric measure space $(X,d,m)$, we introduce the ultrametric Laplacian $L_X$ as the generator of a continuous time Markov chain with transition rate $q(x,y)=k(d(x,y))m(y)$. We establish its complete spectral theory, obtaining explicit closed-form eigenvalues and an eigenbasis supported on the clades of the tree. For phylogenetic applications, we associate to any ultrametric phylogenetic tree $\mathcal{T}$ a canonical operator $L_{\mathcal{T}}$, the ultrametric phylogenetic Laplacian, whose jump rates encode the temporal structure of evolutionary divergence. We show that the geometry and topology of the tree are explicitly encoded in the spectrum and eigenvectors of $L_{\mathcal{T}}$: eigenvalues aggregate branch lengths weighted by clade mass along ancestral paths, while eigenvectors are supported on the clades, with one eigenspace attached to each internal node. From this we derive three main contributions: a spectral reconstruction theorem with linear complexity $O(|X|)$; a rigorous geometric interpretation of the spectral gaps of $L_{\mathcal{T}}$ as detectors of distinct evolutionary modes, validated on an empirical primate phylogeny; an eigenmode decomposition of biological traits that resolves trait variance into contributions from individual splits of the phylogeny; and a closed-form centrality index for continuous-time Markov chains on ultrametric spaces, which we propose as a mathematically grounded measure of evolutionary distinctiveness. All results are exact and biologically interpretable, and are supported by numerical experiments on empirical primate data.