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MPCS: Neuroplastic Continual Learning via Multi-Component Plasticity and Topology-Aware EWC Combining Trained Models in Reinforcement Learning Training Non-Differentiable Networks via Optimal Transport ShiftLIF: Efficient Multi-Level Spiking Neurons with Power-of-Two Quantization Probe-Geometry Alignment: Erasing the Cross-Sequence Memorization Signature Below Chance Benchmarking local Hebbian learning rules for memory storage and prototype extraction Robust volatility updates for Hierarchical Gaussian Filtering Spiking Sequence Machines and Transformers Affinity Is Not Enough: Recovering the Free Energy Principle in Mixture-of-Experts Scalable Learning in Structured Recurrent Spiking Neural Networks without Backpropagation Geometric and dynamical analysis of attractor boundaries and storage limits in kernel Hopfield networks Attractor FCM Physical Foundation Models: Fixed hardware implementations of large-scale neural networks When Does Structure Matter in Continual Learning? Dimensionality Controls When Modularity Shapes Representational Geometry Learning to Forget: Continual Learning with Adaptive Weight Decay Causal Learning with Neural Assemblies NORACL: Neurogenesis for Oracle-free Resource-Adaptive Continual Learning Text-Utilization for Encoder-dominated Speech Recognition Models EdgeSpike: Spiking Neural Networks for Low-Power Autonomous Sensing in Edge IoT Architectures EvoTSC: Evolving Feature Learning Models for Time Series Classification via Genetic Programming Analysis and Explainability of LLMs Via Evolutionary Methods Deployment-Aligned Low-Precision Neural Architecture Search for Spaceborne Edge AI SeaEvo: Advancing Algorithm Discovery with Strategy Space Evolution Primitive Recursion without Composition: Dynamical Characterizations, from Neural Networks to Polynomial ODEs MAEO: Multiobjective Animorphic Ensemble Optimization for Scalable Large-scale Engineering Applications Necessary and sufficient conditions for universality of Kolmogorov-Arnold networks Learn&Drop: Fast Learning of CNNs based on Layer Dropping Architecture-Induced Recoverability Bias in Differentiable Symbolic Regression Collocation-based Robust Physics Informed Neural Networks for time-dependent simulations of pollution propagation under thermal inversion conditions on Spitsbergen Structure-Guided Diffusion Model for EEG-Based Visual Cognition Reconstruction
Deep Learning: Our Miraculous Year 1990-1991
Juergen Schmidhuber · 2020-05-12 · via cs.NE updates on arXiv.org

The Deep Learning Artificial Neural Networks (NNs) of our team have revolutionised Machine Learning & AI. Many of the basic ideas behind this revolution were published within the 12 months of our "Annus Mirabilis" 1990-1991 at our lab in TU Munich. Back then, few people were interested. But a quarter century later, NNs based on our "Miraculous Year" were on over 3 billion devices, and used many billions of times per day, consuming a significant fraction of the world's compute. In particular, in 1990-91, we laid foundations of Generative AI, publishing principles of (1) Generative Adversarial Networks for Artificial Curiosity and Creativity (now used for deepfakes), (2) Transformers (the T in ChatGPT - see the 1991 Unnormalized Linear Transformer), (3) Pre-training for deep NNs (see the P in ChatGPT), (4) NN distillation (key for DeepSeek), and (5) recurrent World Models for Reinforcement Learning and Planning in partially observable environments. The year 1991 also marks the emergence of the defining features of (6) LSTM, the most cited AI paper of the 20th century (based on deep residual learning and constant error flow through residual NN connections), and (7) the most cited paper of the 21st century, based on our LSTM-inspired Highway Net that was 10 times deeper than previous feedforward NNs. As of 2025, the two most frequently cited scientific articles of all time (with the most Google Scholar citations within 3 years - manuals excluded) are both directly based on our 1991 work.