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Abstract:Bell sampling is a simple yet powerful tool based on measuring two copies of a quantum state in the Bell basis, and has found applications in a plethora of problems related to stabiliser states and measures of magic. However, it was not known how to generalise the procedure from qubits to $d$-level systems -- qudits -- for all dimensions $d > 2$ in a useful way. Indeed, a prior work of the authors (arXiv'24) showed that the natural extension of Bell sampling to arbitrary dimensions fails to provide meaningful information about the quantum states being measured. In this paper, we overcome the difficulties encountered in previous works and develop a useful generalisation of Bell sampling to qudits of all $d\geq 2$. At the heart of our primitive is a new unitary, based on Lagrange's four-square theorem, that maps four copies of any stabiliser state $|\mathcal{S}\rangle$ to four copies of its complex conjugate $|\mathcal{S}^\ast\rangle$ (up to some Pauli operator), which may be of independent interest. We then demonstrate the utility of our new Bell sampling technique by lifting several known results from qubits to qudits for any $d\geq 2$:
1. Learning stabiliser states in $O(n^3)$ time with $O(n)$ samples;
2. Solving the Hidden Stabiliser Group Problem in $\tilde{O}(n^3/\varepsilon)$ time with $\tilde{O}(n/\varepsilon)$ samples;
3. Testing whether $|\psi\rangle$ has stabiliser size at least $d^t$ or is $\varepsilon$-far from all such states in $\tilde{O}(n^3/\varepsilon)$ time with $\tilde{O}(n/\varepsilon)$ samples;
4. Clifford circuits with at most $n/2$ single-qudit non-Clifford gates cannot prepare pseudorandom states;
5. Testing whether $|\psi\rangle$ has stabiliser fidelity at least $1-\varepsilon_1$ or at most $1-\varepsilon_2$ with $O(d^2\varepsilon_2/(\varepsilon_2-\varepsilon_1)^2)$ samples if $\varepsilon_1 = O(\varepsilon_2/d^{2})$.

Submission history

From: Joao F. Doriguello [view email]
[v1] Wed, 8 Oct 2025 10:13:16 UTC (229 KB)
[v2] Tue, 11 Nov 2025 21:28:47 UTC (215 KB)
[v3] Tue, 25 Aug 2026 12:14:44 UTC (202 KB)