Building a DAG Workflow Orchestration Engine from Scratch in Python

Every data engineer knows Apache Airflow. But how many have built a workflow orchestrator from scratch? Understanding the internals — topological sorting, parallel execution, trigger rules, retry logic — transforms you from a user into an architect.

In this article, I'll walk through building TaskFlow, a lightweight DAG workflow orchestration engine in Python. It's ~3,100 lines of production-quality code with 107 passing tests.

GitHub: hajirufai/taskflow

What We're Building

TaskFlow lets you define workflows as directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) of tasks, then executes them with:

Parallel execution of independent tasks (asyncio)
Dependency resolution via topological sort
Trigger rules (all_success, all_done, one_success, none_failed)
Retry with exponential backoff and jitter
Timeout enforcement per task
SQLite-backed run history
Cron scheduling
REST API (FastAPI) + Rich CLI

🚀 Starting DAG run: etl_pipeline
  ✅ extract              [2.30s]
  ✅ validate             [0.12s]
  ✅ transform            [1.50s]
  ✅ load                 [3.10s]
  ✅ notify               [0.05s]
✨ DAG run completed in 5.60s (5/5 tasks succeeded)

Core Architecture

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│              TaskFlow Engine                 │
├──────────┬──────────┬───────────┬───────────┤
│   DAG    │  Graph   │ Executor  │ Scheduler │
│ Registry │  Algos   │ (async)   │  (cron)   │
├──────────┴──────────┴───────────┴───────────┤
│         Storage (SQLite + aiosqlite)         │
├─────────────────────┬───────────────────────┤
│    REST API         │      Rich CLI         │
│   (FastAPI)         │     (Click)           │
└─────────────────────┴───────────────────────┘

The engine has four pillars:

DAG Registry — stores workflow definitions with task configs
Graph Algorithms — topological sort, cycle detection, parallel levels
Async Executor — runs tasks with concurrency control
Storage — persists run history to SQLite

Step 1: Graph Algorithms

The foundation of any workflow engine is graph theory. We need:

Topological Sort (Kahn's Algorithm)

This gives us a valid execution order — no task runs before its dependencies.

from collections import deque

def topological_sort(nodes, edges):
    """Kahn's algorithm: O(V + E) topological ordering."""
    in_degree = {n: 0 for n in nodes}
    for src, dsts in edges.items():
        for dst in dsts:
            in_degree[dst] += 1

    queue = deque(n for n in nodes if in_degree[n] == 0)
    result = []

    while queue:
        node = queue.popleft()
        result.append(node)
        for downstream in edges.get(node, []):
            in_degree[downstream] -= 1
            if in_degree[downstream] == 0:
                queue.append(downstream)

    if len(result) != len(nodes):
        raise CycleError("Graph contains a cycle!")
    return result

Parallel Level Assignment

This groups tasks that can run concurrently:

def parallel_levels(nodes, edges):
    """Assign tasks to execution levels.
    Level 0 = no dependencies. Level N = max(upstream levels) + 1.
    """
    order = topological_sort(nodes, edges)
    reverse_edges = build_reverse_edges(edges)

    levels_map = {}
    for node in order:
        upstreams = reverse_edges.get(node, [])
        if not upstreams:
            levels_map[node] = 0
        else:
            levels_map[node] = max(levels_map[u] for u in upstreams) + 1

    # Group by level
    max_level = max(levels_map.values(), default=0)
    return [
        [n for n in order if levels_map[n] == i]
        for i in range(max_level + 1)
    ]

For a diamond DAG (extract → [transform, validate] → load), this produces:

Level 0: [extract]
Level 1: [transform, validate] ← run in parallel!
Level 2: [load]

Step 2: DAG Definition with Decorators

The user-facing API uses Python decorators — familiar and Pythonic:

from taskflow import DAG, TriggerRule

dag = DAG("etl_pipeline", schedule="0 2 * * *")

@dag.task()
def extract():
    return {"records": fetch_data()}

@dag.task(depends_on=["extract"], retries=3, timeout=300)
def transform(extract=None):
    return clean(extract["records"])

@dag.task(depends_on=["transform"])
def load(transform=None):
    write_to_warehouse(transform)

Under the hood, each @dag.task() call:

Creates a TaskConfig with retry/timeout/trigger settings
Wraps the function in a TaskDefinition
Registers edges in the DAG's adjacency list
Adds to a global registry for CLI/API discovery

Step 3: The Async Executor

The executor is where the magic happens. It runs tasks level by level, with proper concurrency control:

class Executor:
    async def execute(self, dag, run_id=None):
        # 1. Validate the DAG (check for cycles, missing deps)
        errors = dag.validate()
        if errors:
            raise ValueError(f"Invalid DAG: {errors}")

        # 2. Get parallel execution levels
        levels = parallel_levels(dag.tasks.keys(), dag.edges)

        # 3. Execute each level
        for level_tasks in levels:
            coros = [
                self._execute_task(dag, task_id, dag_run)
                for task_id in level_tasks
            ]
            await asyncio.gather(*coros)  # Parallel!

        return dag_run

Trigger Rules

Before running a task, we evaluate its trigger rule against upstream states:

def _evaluate_trigger_rule(rule, depends_on, dag_run):
    upstream_states = [dag_run.task_runs[dep].state for dep in depends_on]

    if rule == TriggerRule.ALL_SUCCESS:
        return all(s == TaskState.SUCCESS for s in upstream_states)
    elif rule == TriggerRule.ALL_DONE:
        return all(s.is_terminal for s in upstream_states)
    elif rule == TriggerRule.ONE_SUCCESS:
        return any(s == TaskState.SUCCESS for s in upstream_states)
    elif rule == TriggerRule.NONE_FAILED:
        return not any(s in (FAILED, TIMED_OUT) for s in upstream_states)

This enables patterns like cleanup tasks that run even when upstream tasks fail (ALL_DONE), or notification tasks that fire when at least one branch succeeds (ONE_SUCCESS).

Step 4: Retry with Exponential Backoff

Production workflows need retries. We implement exponential backoff with jitter to avoid thundering herds:

def compute_delay(attempt, base_delay=1.0, backoff=2.0, max_delay=300.0):
    delay = base_delay * (backoff ** attempt)
    delay = min(delay, max_delay)
    # Add ±25% jitter to avoid synchronized retries
    jitter = delay * 0.25
    delay += random.uniform(-jitter, jitter)
    return max(0.0, delay)

The retry sequence for base_delay=1.0, backoff=2.0: ~1s → ~2s → ~4s → ~8s → ... capped at max_delay.

Step 5: SQLite Storage

Every run is persisted to SQLite for history and debugging:

async def save_dag_run(dag_run):
    db = await get_db()
    await db.execute(
        "INSERT INTO dag_runs (run_id, dag_id, state, ...) VALUES (?, ?, ?, ...)",
        (dag_run.run_id, dag_run.dag_id, dag_run.state.value, ...),
    )
    for task_run in dag_run.task_runs.values():
        await db.execute(
            "INSERT INTO task_runs (run_id, task_id, state, ...) VALUES (...)",
            ...
        )

We use aiosqlite for async compatibility, WAL mode for concurrent reads, and automatic cleanup of old runs.

Step 6: Cron Scheduler

The built-in scheduler parses standard cron expressions:

class CronExpression:
    def __init__(self, expression):
        # Parse "0 */6 * * *" into sets of valid values
        parts = expression.split()
        self.minute = self._parse_field(parts[0], 0, 59)
        self.hour = self._parse_field(parts[1], 0, 23)
        # ... day, month, weekday

    def matches(self, dt):
        return (dt.minute in self.minute
                and dt.hour in self.hour
                and dt.day in self.day
                and dt.month in self.month
                and dt.weekday() in self.weekday)

Supports wildcards (*), steps (*/6), ranges (9-17), and lists (1,15,28).

The REST API

FastAPI gives us automatic OpenAPI docs and async support:

@app.post("/dags/{dag_id}/trigger")
async def trigger_dag(dag_id: str):
    dag = DAG.get(dag_id)
    executor = Executor()
    dag_run = await executor.execute(dag)
    await save_dag_run(dag_run)
    return {
        "run_id": dag_run.run_id,
        "state": dag_run.state.value,
        "summary": dag_run.summary(),
    }

Endpoints for listing DAGs, triggering runs, querying history, and getting task-level details.

Testing: 107 Tests in 0.94s

Comprehensive test coverage across all components:

Module	Tests	What's Covered
`test_graph.py`	18	Topo sort, cycles, levels, critical path
`test_dag.py`	14	Creation, validation, registry, context manager
`test_executor.py`	17	Execution, failures, timeouts, trigger rules, async
`test_retry.py`	10	Backoff, jitter, exhaustion
`test_store.py`	9	Save, query, filter, cleanup
`test_scheduler.py`	18	Cron parsing, matching, scheduling
`test_api.py`	11	All REST endpoints

Key testing patterns:

In-memory SQLite for fast, isolated storage tests
ASGITransport from httpx for testing FastAPI without a server
DAG registry cleanup between tests to prevent leakage
pytest-asyncio with asyncio_mode = "auto" for clean async tests

What I Learned

Kahn's algorithm is elegant — just in-degree tracking and a queue. O(V+E) and naturally detects cycles.
Trigger rules change everything — ALL_DONE for cleanup, ONE_SUCCESS for fan-in patterns, NONE_FAILED for conditional logic. These four rules cover most real-world patterns.
Jitter in retries matters — without it, all failed tasks retry at the same time (thundering herd). A ±25% jitter spreads the load.
asyncio.Semaphore is perfect for concurrency limits — combined with asyncio.gather() for level-based parallelism.
SQLite + WAL mode is surprisingly capable — for single-process orchestrators, it's all you need. No Postgres required.

Try It

git clone https://github.com/hajirufai/taskflow.git
cd taskflow
pip install -e ".[dev]"
pytest tests/ -v
python examples/etl_pipeline.py

The full source is ~3,100 lines of Python with 107 tests. It's a great foundation for understanding how workflow orchestrators work under the hood.