In 1996, the bestselling China Can Say No, co-authored by a group of intellectuals, reflected a nascent rejection of worship of the West and a rise in Chinese nationalism.

Thirty years on, China is not just saying “no” to the West, it possesses the strategic leverage to hit back, underpinned by its dominance in global supply chains, rare earth minerals and critical green technologies. China’s confidence is perhaps most evident in its rebuttals and forceful countermeasures against Western claims and sanctions.

When the United States first targeted Chinese tech giants like Huawei and TikTok and imposed export controls on advanced semiconductors, Beijing’s pushback was largely rhetorical. This has changed significantly.

Following the Trump administration’s announcement of sweeping tariffs last April, China imposed comprehensive tit-for-tat tariffs on the US. China showed that it is willing to assert extraterritorial jurisdiction, having introduced export restrictions on rare earth minerals for military use.

The West has certainly felt the impact of China’s ascent. In the words of British Prime Minister Keir Starmer, “For years the narrative ran that China was the coming power. Well now it has arrived.” During this year’s World Economic Forum in Davos, German Chancellor Friedrich Merz acknowledged that China has utilised “strategic foresight” to work its way into the ranks of “great powers”.

This realisation has been accompanied by a shift in Western engagement with China. In recent months, there has been a parade of Western leaders visiting Beijing, showing their concern about missing out on opportunities within the world’s second-largest economy.