Abstract:Learning to generalise from limited data is a fundamental challenge for both artificial and biological systems. A common strategy is to extract reusable structure from abundant unlabelled data, enabling efficient adaptation to new tasks from limited labelled data. This two-stage paradigm is now standard in modern training pipelines, where pretraining is followed by fine-tuning or linear probing. We provide an analytical model of this process: structure extraction is formalized as principal component analysis on unlabelled data, and downstream learning as linear regression on a separate labelled dataset. In the high-dimensional regime, we derive exact expressions for training and generalisation error showcasing their dependence on representation dimensionality, unlabelled and labelled sample sizes, and task alignment. Our results show that pretrained representations strongly influence downstream generalisation, and we characterize the optimal representation size as a function of task parameters: with abundant pretraining data but scarce downstream data, maximally compressed representations are optimal, whereas with limited pretraining data, higher-dimensional representations generalise better. Furthermore, we establish an exact trade-off between pretraining and supervision, quantifying how much unlabelled data is required to replace a single labelled sample. Beyond our idealised model, we observe similar phenomenology in autoencoders and pretrained LLMs. Altogether, we highlight that optimising representation size is critical, giving conditions for when compression during pretraining improves generalisation.
| Subjects: | Machine Learning (cs.LG) |
| Cite as: | arXiv:2605.20105 [cs.LG] |
| (or arXiv:2605.20105v1 [cs.LG] for this version) | |
| https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2605.20105 arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) |
From: Valentina Njaradi [view email]
[v1]
Tue, 19 May 2026 16:56:56 UTC (4,488 KB)
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