Amazon is investing in next-generation nuclear technology to meet the rising energy demands of AI infrastructure and cloud computing, and at the heart of that technology are tristructural isotropic (TRISO) fuel particles. This is not your grandparents’ nuclear-reactor fuel. These tiny, robust TRISO particles represent a step forward in the design, performance, and inherent safety of reactor fuel.

TRISO: A materials science breakthrough in every particle

To understand why TRISO-based fuel is exceptional, consider what reactor fuel must do. In addition to sustaining a controlled fission reaction, it must contain the radioactive byproducts of that reaction, known as fission products. These include noble gases, volatile metals, and long-lived isotopes. Fuel must reliably isolate them throughout operation and into long-term storage, protecting both plant personnel and the public.

At less than a millimeter in diameter, each TRISO particle is about the size of a poppy seed, but it acts as a miniature containment system. At its center is a kernel of enriched uranium, surrounded by an inner buffer of porous carbon. Then comes a ceramic shell with three layers (hence the word “tristructural” in the particles’ name): a dense pyrolytic-carbon layer, a silicon carbide (SiC) layer, and an outer pyrolytic-carbon layer.

The ceramic shell ensures containment. The silicon carbide layer acts as a pressure vessel and chemical barrier. SiC's hardness, corrosion resistance, and melting point above 2700°C give TRISO particles exceptional mechanical integrity and thermal resilience.

Those properties persist even in conditions commensurate with the worst hypothetical criticality accident. Data from the U.S. Department of Energy's Advanced Gas Reactor Fuel Qualification Program (AGR) show that irradiated TRISO particles, subjected to 1600°C for 300 hours, exhibited no detectable failures, with an upper-bound failure fraction of ≤ 6.6 × 10⁻⁵. At 1800°C, failure rates remained well below conservative design limits.

These findings were based on the fabrication, irradiation, and testing of more than 500,000 TRISO particles since 2002. The proven durability of these TRISO coatings also preserves long-term stability in spent fuel better than today’s fuel, potentially for as long as 100,000 years.

Fuel form flexibility and operational efficiency

For decades, commercial light-water reactors have relied on uranium oxide fuel pellets clad in zirconium alloy tubes. This well-established combination has delivered stable, reliable power with a strong safety record in the global reactor fleet. TRISO-based fuels build on this foundation and offer engineers greater flexibility in fuel form and reactor design.

Because each TRISO particle contains its own fission-product barriers, nuclear fuel designers can explore novel configurations that enable new operational modes. In pebble-bed reactors like the X-energy Xe-100, in which Amazon is investing, TRISO particles are embedded in tennis-ball-sized graphite spheres that circulate continuously through the core. This motion allows operators to refuel without shutting down the reactor, monitor fuel consumption in real time, and minimize the amount of unburnt uranium in spent fuel. These efficiencies support both resource conservation and waste reduction.

TRISO-based fuels can also accommodate different core geometries, so they’re compatible with a range of newer reactor designs focused on safety. Cylindrical compacts are well suited for prismatic cores, for instance, while spherical pebbles enable pebble-bed configurations.

This geometric flexibility also allows for the integration of advanced coolants. Unlike conventional light-water reactors, many TRISO-fueled designs — such as the Xe-100 — use high-temperature helium as the primary coolant. Others explore the use of clean molten salt. These alternatives improve thermal efficiency, enable passive heat removal, and further expand the potential applications for advanced reactors.

Enrichment and the supply chain

TRISO particles are manufactured using high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU), enriched to between 10% and 20% ²³⁵U. HALEU offers higher energy density than traditional low-enriched uranium while remaining below the threshold for highly enriched uranium. The use of HALEU in TRISO-based fuels supports compact, high-output designs like the Xe-100 by enabling higher fuel loading and energy density. Each unit produces 80 megawatts of electricity, and up to 12 can be collocated. This modular approach allows right-sized deployment and operational flexibility.

HALEU production requires dedicated infrastructure. As enrichment levels increase, separative work becomes more demanding. Centrus Energy operates a U.S.-based HALEU cascade, and the Department of Energy has launched programs to accelerate commercial access.

Fuel fabrication has also progressed. TRISO-X, a public-private venture at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, produces TRISO fuel at kilogram scale and is expanding commercial capacity. Standard Nuclear continues developing sol-gel processing, which yields spherical uranium oxide microspheres for TRISO kernels.

Amazon's role in deployment

Amazon has invested in the Cascade Energy Center, a project to deploy TRISO-fueled Xe-100 reactors in central Washington. With participants such as X-energy, Energy Northwest, Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power, and Doosan Enerbility, the project plans to bring as many as 12 Xe-100 units online to power data centers and cloud infrastructure. The Xe-100 is licensed for construction, TRISO fuel production is active, and project sites are under development.

The time is now

As a nuclear-engineering professor and researcher focused on advanced reactor technologies and fuel development, I can say with confidence that TRISO particle fuel is the most robust nuclear fuel we have ever developed. Its resilience has been confirmed through rigorous experimentation, and its readiness is evident in a growing manufacturing base and commercial momentum.

TRISO-based fuels support reactors that build on decades of engineering progress and deliver clean energy with new capabilities. These systems operate flexibly, scale efficiently, and meet the demands of today’s evolving energy landscape.

The future of nuclear fuel is not hypothetical. We are building it now — particle by particle.